Mahmud Ghaznavi, or Mahmud of Ghazni (2 November 971 – 30 April 1030) (Persian: Yamīn al-Dawla Mahmūd) (full name: Yamīn al-Dawla Abū al-Qāsim Mahmūd ibn Sebük Tigin), was the ruler of the Ghaznavid State, who reigned between 998 and 1030.
Life
Sultan Mahmud was born in Ghazni on 2 November 971. His father was Sebük Tegin, a Mamluk commander of Turkic origin; his mother is said to have been from the region of Zabulistan, though her ethnicity is uncertain. For this reason poets at times addressed Mahmud as "Mahmud-ı Zâbulî." Mahmud, who began to take part in state administration in his youth, had his first post outside Ghazni in the region of Zamindawar. In 994, upon the revolt of the Samanid governor of Khorasan, the rebellion was suppressed when Nuh I sought military aid from Sebük Tegin. The Samanid ruler granted Sebük Tegin the title Nasir al-Din wa'l-Dunya (Helper of the Faith and the World) and Mahmud himself the title Sayf al-Dawla (Sword of the State).
Upon Sebük Tegin's death in 997 — because before dying he had willed that his younger son Ismail should succeed to the throne — Ismail, after receiving news of his father's death, came to Balkh and proclaimed his rule. Mahmud, who was then serving as governor of Khorasan in Nishapur, objected to his brother's rule and, together with the troops he had gathered, attacked his brother at Ghazni. In the Battle of Ghazni fought in 998, Ismail was defeated, took refuge in a fortress, and after some time surrendered to his elder brother. After a reign of about 7 months, he was killed by his elder brother in 998.
Mahmud of Ghazni reigned for 32 years, from his accession in 998 until 1030. Through the determination and activity he displayed during this period, he came to rule a great and powerful state of Central Asia. On his first campaign in the year 1000, he declared his independence through envoys he sent to the Abbasid Caliph Ahmad "al-Qādir bi'llāh." The Caliph in turn sent Mahmud a precious robe of honour, a crown, and a banner recognizing his sultanate, together with a manshur (patent) recognizing his rule over the lands he had conquered. After this event, asserting that he was heir to the Samanid lands, he set out on campaign against the Karakhanids. As a result of hard-fought battles, the Karakhanids were defeated. After treaties made between the two states, both Mahmud and his son Mas'ud I married daughters of the Karakhanid Khagan, so that father and son became sons-in-law of the Karakhanids.
The Indian Campaigns
Setting out on his 1st Indian campaign in 1001, Mahmud of Ghazni advanced against the Kabul Shahi kingdom, which held rich and fertile lands in northern India. In the battle fought near Peshawar, he defeated the Indian army of 30,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 300 war elephants, taking captive Raja Jayapala, who ruled the Punjab region, and his commanders. Having obtained much booty here, Mahmud released Jayapala in exchange for a large amount of gold and 50 elephants as ransom. The Raja, freed from captivity, unable to accept his captivity and having fallen from his people's esteem, killed himself by being burned in fire.
In his 2nd Indian campaign, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Jayapala's son Anandapala with 15,000 cavalry and captured the city of Waihand on the bank of the Indus River. He returned to Ghazni with the title of Ghazi and abundant booty.
He conducted his 3rd Indian campaign against Bijī Rāy, the Raja of Bhatia, who had not supported him during the 2nd campaign. The battle fought in 1004 lasted 4 days, and with this victory the region of Bhatia passed into Ghaznavid hands. Fearing capture during the siege, the Raja fled the fortress but was pursued by the Ghaznavid troops. Like Jayapala, he too died by suicide. Mahmud of Ghazni returned to Ghazni in 1005 with abundant booty and 280 elephants.
In his 4th Indian campaign, because the Emir of Multan, Abū al-Fath Dāwūd, had departed from Sunnism and begun to spread Batini views, Mahmud set his army in motion in 1006 and marched on Multan. But because the waters of the Indus River were high, he asked Anandapala, the Raja of Punjab, for help in crossing to Multan. Refused this request, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Anandapala, defeated him, and forced him to withdraw to Kashmir. Learning that the Ghaznavids were advancing on him, Dāwūd, fearing defeat, fled and took refuge on an island in the Indus River. With this campaign the region as far as Multan passed into Ghaznavid hands, and the Batinis in India were killed, removing the unrest. As Emir of Multan, Jayapala's grandson Suphal, who had become a Muslim, was chosen and installed in office.
Death
Sultan Mahmud spent much of his life on the battlefields; his campaigns into India in particular had greatly worn him out and caused him to fall ill. Despite the doctors' advice, he took no rest and carried out the duties a ruler must perform. Historians generally accept that Sultan Mahmud died of tuberculosis.
Mahmud spent the winter of 1029–1030 in Balkh. But because of the city's climate he returned to Ghazni. Unable to recover his health here either, Sultan Mahmud died on 30 April 1030 at the age of 58.
The Ghaznavids, who lived their most successful era in the time of Sultan Mahmud, weakened after the Battle of Dandanaqan and entered a process of collapse. The Ghurid emir Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad destroyed the Ghaznavid Empire in 1186 and conquered their last capital, Lahore.
Sources
- Turkish Wikipedia: tr.wikipedia.org
- English Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org